Since the philosophical inception of causality by Galilei1and Hume2that cause must precede the effect in time, the scientific criteria for assessing causal relationships between two time series have been dominated by the notion of prediction, as proposed by Granger3. Namely, the causal relationship ...
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Thus, estimation of how simultaneous exposure to multiple air pollutants affects the risk of adverse health response represents a challenge for scientific research and air quality management. To gain better insight into the features of air pollution mixtures and their effect, there is a consequent ...
The postmodern critique challenges us to consider the extent to which social constructions may bias our scientific values, assumptions, and even the overall conceptual framework of our own scientific discipline. Many hypotheses and experiments are legitimately subject to more than one interpretation; would...
This report, which included the application of Hill's criteria on causality [39], formed the basis of a co-authored, peer-reviewed subsequent publication in Addiction [9]. Considerations f) to k) were addressed by JS's drafting of an ethical and wider scientific counter-case for continued ...
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development emphasizes the importance of complex problem-solving (CPS) skills in the 21st century. CPS skills have been linked to academic performance, career development, and job competency training. Reflect
Criteria for study termination include any suspected unexpected serious adverse reaction (SUSAR) or serious adverse event (SAE) based on an allergic reaction and clear allergic or iatrogenic effects in two or more patients including patients which report back to the hospital with serious iatrogenic ...
Authors of scientific papers are usually encouraged to cite works that meaningfully influenced their research (substantive citations) and avoid citing works that had no meaningful influence (rhetorical citations). Rhetorical citations are assumed to degr
With regard to the Physical SS, we have decided to include in our study also this part of the task, along with ToM SS, as those stories can help to differentiate text comprehension abilities, which are required for the correct understanding of both types of passages, from ToM abilities, ...
This prompts one to question whether the scientific criteria for human-like diseases in HMA murine models were sufficiently stringent. Lack of Mechanistic Insight It is encouraging that 87% (33/38) of the studies in this systematic review addressed whether the gut or fecal microbiota in the ...