The abiotic spheres—comprising the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere—are made up of non-living components. Abiotic factors include elements such as minerals, gases, and water, all of which do not originate from living organisms. These spheres interact with each other and influence the Earth...
As research continued, it became clear that most such movement was the result of sea-floor spreading at rifts in the Earth’s lithosphere, generally at the bases of deep oceanic trenches. The mantle is characterized by deep, slow convection currents that constantly stir the mantle material; cool...