The probability that actual remains of soft tissue will be preserved is improved if the organism dies in an environment of rapid deposition and oxygen deprivation.Under such conditions, the destructive effects of bacteria are diminished.The Middle Eocene Messel Shale (from about 48 million years ago...
Public sentiment towards the police is a matter of great interest in the United States, as reports on police misconduct are increasingly being published in mass and social media. Here, we test how the public’s perception of the police can be majorly sha
③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation. ④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation. 4) Behaviorism...
Though some people suggest that there is differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person ...
Probability theory, however, tells us that such differences in syntactic expectation should also produce differences in lexical expectation, even if these latter differences are too small to measure via the cloze task. We can quantify the predictability of a word w in context C as its conditional...
Depending on the chosen level of analysis, symbol types are taken to be either (Unicode) characters or word types. Correspondingly, a symbol token is any reoccurrence of a symbol type47. We can then count how often each symbol appears in κ and call the resulting frequency \({f}_{j}\)...
MERGE can be framed as a probability tensor implementing coarse-graining, akin to a probabilistic context-free grammar (Gallego & Orús,2022). The model proposed in Gallego and Orús (2022, p. 20) assumes that language is “the cheapest non-trivial computational system”, exhibiting a high ...
We formulate the model mathematically in the following. Given a sequence of target word w1,w2,…,wT and its contextual word h1,h2,…,hT, the training objective is to maximize the conditional log probability of observing the actual output contextual word given the input target word, i.e.,(...
The phenomenon of “quiet quitting” has gained significant attention globally through various platforms, raising concerns about the impact of workplace stress on individuals’ personal lives and sparking social movements and investigations. As the numbe
where k B is the Boltzmann’s constant and f t is the density of the temporal evolution of the probability distribution in the phase space. Boltzmann entropy was defined for a macroscopic state of a system, while Gibbs entropy is the generalization of the Boltzmann entropy for over an ensembl...