State-imposed forced labour has a number of overarching characteristics: 1) there is a mobilisation of labour using state apparatuses including the army, the police, the judiciary, and the prison system; 2) these state apparatuses act either in accordance with national law that is in non-...
6. Conclusion In conclusion, our analysis indicates that most household assets act on child time use decisions primarily by reducing poverty constraints and thus contribute to reducing child work (e.g. land fertility, oxen, ploughs and proximity to water) and/or increasing school attendance (e.g...
Therefore, this current act of child begging in the area can be traced to what pertained in the past during the Islamic school system under the mallams. The historical link between Islam and begging as described here by the mallams resonates with that of Einarsdóttir, Boiro, & Geirsson, ...