Urbanization and climate change are contributing to severe flooding globally, damaging infrastructure, disrupting economies, and undermining human well-being. Approaches to make cities more resilient to floods
Simple, straightforward methods of calculating runoff can tell you the amount of water that storms bring to the earth. For a given surface area such as a roof or yard, multiply the area by the inches of rainfall and divide by 231 to obtain the runoff in gallons. The factor 231 comes fro...
These measurements are integrated with multiple pollutant indicators using models like the entropy value method to calculate the weight values of different pollutants, revealing the pollution source structure and specific emission levels (Ahad et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2024). However, current ...
We made a number of assumptions to calculate the CO2 emissions from forests due to deforestation and degradation and the capture and storage of CO2 from existing and new forest areas and from wood products. The calculation of forest CO2 emissions is based on the total carbon stock used in the...
Calculate the range of the data set by subtracting the smallest from the largest number given in Step 3. The range for the example is 12 – 1 = 11. Step 5 Practice the method outlined in Step 2 through Step 4 to find the range of the following test scores: 55, 60, 75, 80, 85,...
SWOT river slope data — like that depicted here for California’s Sacramento River — can improve predictions of how fast water flows through rivers and off landscapes. To calculate slope, scientists subtract the lower water elevation (right) from the higher one (left) and divide by segment le...
Ground sampling distance (GSD) is utilized to measure the size of detecting objects and the sensor's height from the ground and the number of pixels in one row are used to calculate it. Below is the Eq. (1) for calculating the GSD $$GSD = \frac{{[2 \times H \times \tan \left(...
The speed limit on hurricane winds is relatively easy to calculate, said James Kossin, a climate scientist who is retired from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and now consults for the climate risk modeling agency First Street. Sign up for the Live Science daily newslet...
with its radial coordinate being defined as the mean distance from these grid points to the storm center; (4) exclusion of all radial points where the data asymmetry parameter, α, is >0.5 (α is a measure of the azimuthal asymmetry in data coverage used to calculate the radial wind profil...
How to calculate the UV index The UV Index serves as an important means to raise public awareness and to alert people about the need to adopt protective measures when exposed to harmful UV radiation. From UV-E radiation measurements, the UV-Index is calculated as follow: Take the output fr...